journalism research – Nieman Lab https://www.niemanlab.org Thu, 27 Apr 2023 14:32:31 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.2 Searching for gold: Making sense of academic research about journalism https://www.niemanlab.org/2023/04/searching-for-gold-making-sense-of-academic-research-about-journalism/ https://www.niemanlab.org/2023/04/searching-for-gold-making-sense-of-academic-research-about-journalism/#respond Thu, 27 Apr 2023 14:32:00 +0000 https://www.niemanlab.org/?p=214609 Do academics know secrets about journalism that working reporters and editors don’t know?

For curious journalists like me, spending time reading academic research about journalism and democracy reveals a mixed picture.

There’s plenty of research to show that journalism is still a critical part of an engaged society. Decades of evidencebased studies show a correlation between news consumption and political engagement. People who read more news tend to vote more regularly and engage more in their own community.

Newer academic studies tend to look at very specific practices around types of journalism and find insights particular to certain beats or coverage areas — and there’s quite a lot of it. Just a few examples include how journalists use empathy in covering homelessness, whether fact-checking changes false beliefs, and how audiences react to watching coverage of terrorism.

But keeping track of all that academic research across subject areas is no easy task. Here’s where professors Mark Coddington and Seth Lewis have stepped up an email newsletter (hosted on Substack) that aims to showcase the most compelling research published each month. The newsletter is called RQ1, and Nieman Lab republishes it each month.

Want more? Subscribe to our newsletter here and have Nieman Lab’s daily look at the changing world of digital journalism sent straight to your inbox.

Coddington and Lewis are both former journalists who became academics. (For several years, Coddington wrote the “Week in Review” column for Nieman Lab.) They now study their former colleagues amid a changing digital news environment, tackling issues of data journalism, social media, news engagement and news aggregation. (Coddington is at Washington and Lee University, while Lewis is at University of Oregon.)

“We’ve had trouble ourselves keeping up with the constant flow of new research on news and journalism, and we want to help you keep up with it as we try to wade through it as well,” they write in the newsletter.

As editor-in-chief of PolitiFact, I have a high interest in keeping up with academic research on fact-checking, and as a Nieman Fellow I’ve been studying research about the connection between journalism and democracy, so I reached out to Coddington and Lewis with a few questions. This interview has been edited for length and clarity.

Angie Drobnic Holan: When you’re putting together the newsletter each month, is there just a gusher of research to go through? And have you noticed changes in the research over the years?

Mark Coddington: I feel at times overwhelmed by the gusher of research that is out there. Almost every major journal that regularly publishes sends out email alerts when they publish a study, so I subscribe to all of those. And then there are others that I check regularly as well. Any new research goes into a spreadsheet, and that spreadsheet runs to about 75 to 80 articles a month. And that’s a lot of research — a lot. For the newsletter, we select the ones that we think would be of most interest to journalists or researchers.

Seth Lewis: The study of communication has been around for about 100 years, but the focused study of journalism in this field that we now call journalism studies is really only about two decades old. And in fact, that began with the founding of the journals Journalism and Journalism Studies, which both appeared in 2000. The journal Journalism Practice came out in 2007, and then Digital Journalism was launched in 2013…So there has been a real flourishing of research about news in the last two decades, which, of course, kind of ironically tracks the period in which newspapers have contracted. The news industry has seen its fortunes crumble in the last couple of decades, while space and attention given to research about journalism has grown dramatically.

Holan: What are the areas currently in journalism research that are really robust and productive?

Coddington: One of those areas is sociology of journalism, especially the practice of journalism during this time of immense change. Since the late 2000s or so, a lot of strong research looks at how journalists do their jobs, and how it has changed in so many different areas. Researchers have studied the values journalists bring to their work, and how the values changed. A lot of these are practice-oriented sociological questions.

Holan: Do you think it’s helpful for working journalists to read this research?

Lewis: When I worked at the Miami Herald, I remember that sometimes I would wander over to different parts of the newsroom, and near the executive editor’s office there was a coffee table with various reading materials, probably for people who were waiting to meet with the editor. And on that coffee table was a copy of Newspaper Research Journal, which is another journal that covers research about news. And I remember, as a journalist, picking this up and flipping through it and thinking, “What is the purpose of this research? None of this seems very relevant to what we do.” It was a flippant response, and now it’s sort of ironic that I do research about news. But there is research about journalism that, depending on how it’s framed and conducted, can feel pretty detached from the actual working realities of journalism. As journalism research has become more established academically, it’s tended toward specialization and some degree of jargon and terminology that’s opaque.

But strong research does exist, and it has a lot of relevance for journalists. And nowadays, given all of the kinds of networks and social media and email alerts that exist, the opportunities for journalists to come into contact with that good research and find value from it are much greater than ever before.

Coddington: I think it’s partly a question of the level of engagement. As far as deep engagement with journalism research, I’m not sure that’s the best investment of time for an incredibly busy journalist. Because it’s hard for me, on top of my job that actually includes this, to deeply engage with and read and fully understand multiple news studies a month — and to actually understand what they’re saying and how they’re engaging with other areas of research. That’s beyond what a journalist should reasonably be expected to do, and I’m not sure it’s the best investment of their time, because it takes a long time to really thoroughly read and understand an academic study.

But I think some familiarity with research in the field is helpful for journalists to just understand and think a little bit more deeply about what they’re doing.

If you can get an introduction to at least some of the ideas of how people have thought about how journalists do their jobs, it can really help you think from a different angle of what is actually going on in your job, and potentially how to do it better.

Holan: When you write the RQ1 newsletter, what audience do you have in mind? Is it just journalists, or nonjournalists as well?

Coddington: When we started, my intended audience was journalists, but it was also busy academics who want to keep up with research but simply don’t have time. I also thought of it as written for first-year graduate students. That is still, in my head, sort of my happy medium, because somebody in their first month of a master’s program is still learning about this stuff.

Lewis: I also imagine that we might be able to reach people who are interested in news and journalism, even if they’re not actually working journalists. There are people who find news fascinating and interesting, or people who just like to be informed about what’s happening in the world of journalism, because they find it an intriguing space. We want to make sure that the really good stuff rises to the top and gets the notice that it deserves.

Social media has changed the game, and academics have used Twitter as a key medium to talk about their work — to get it noticed, not only by fellow researchers, but also by journalists. But we’ve also seen ways in which these social networks are kind of uneven and problematic. Many academics have pulled back on their use of Twitter. And so there’s a sense that email is the ultimate common denominator. An email newsletter is something that everybody can easily tap into.

Holan: I see a lot of research about journalism coming from a lot of different academic fields, from computer scientists or librarians or philosophers. It can be research that crosses a lot of academic borders. Do you see that?

Lewis: I would say that journalism has become more interesting precisely because its fortunes have become more uncertain. It’s the inherent instability in the space that makes it so fascinating to many researchers. Whether they’re coming from sociology, political science, economics, or computer science, each of them can find in this a highly dynamic space where there’s a lot of uncertainty as to what it’s going to look like in five years or 10 years, and what will happen to legacy players compared to emerging upstarts, and what will be the knock on-effects of losing newspapers in communities, and what the loss of news media means for declines in civic participation, and so on. I think there’s a growing interest in fields to look at the changing dynamics of journalism as a way to examine larger patterns in society.

Coddington: Fundamentally, it can be easy for academics in journalism studies to forget that journalism is actually an object of study rather than a field academically in itself. There is a field of journalism studies, but fundamentally, that’s not an academic discipline, like sociology or anthropology, or philosophy, or something like that. Journalism is an object of study. And I think the more disciplinary lenses through which we can look at it the better. And yes, most often it’s been looked at through a social scientific lens that is housed within communication as a field. But it’s equally legitimate to study it through an economic lens, or a political science lens, or an historical lens.

Holan: Some journalists are starting to do more research on themselves. I work in fact-checking journalism, and many fact-checking newsrooms have put out their own studies on how they see their field developing and what effects fact-checking produces. It might not be considered scholarly, but it is serious research.

Coddington: You asked earlier whether journalists should know about academic research, and I would say that if somebody is going into fact-checking, do they need to read all the research on fact-checking? No, that would take too long to read. You should just focus on being a better fact-checker. But, should you read Lucas Graves’ book, Deciding What’s True? Yes, you absolutely should read that book, if you are going to go into fact-checking in any form. It will help you think so much better about what you’re doing.

Holan: I keep running into sociologist Michael Schudson’s work every time I work on any project about journalism and democracy. His book The Sociology of News influenced me a lot. What books have shaped you?

Coddington: I think every journalism scholar has a book that they either read as a journalist, if they were a journalist, or early on in graduate school — there was a book that kicked open the door to a new way of thinking, and that they would probably recommend to every  journalist. For me, it’s Gaye Tuchman’s Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality, from 1978. Almost every paper I write her work has influenced in some form that I have to cite. She’s a sociologist, and the way that she thought about how journalists know what they know, and how they put that all together within the thought-professional environment that they live in, on a day-to-day basis…It just felt like a new way of thinking about it, that honestly colors and informs so much of the way we talk about the way journalists do their jobs, whether people have read the book or not.

Lewis: For me, it wasn’t so much a book as it was blogging. In particular, it was Jay Rosen’s PressThink blog. I was working as a journalist, but when I had various breaks and downtime, I found that I was gravitating more and more to PressThink, around 2004 to 2005. He was in a sense kind of doing public scholarship through that blog. He was writing about news, although not in a research-driven way, but he was bringing a critical evaluative lens to it that I found really fascinating. It was prompting me to ask questions about the work I was doing, and about how those questions could be explored more fully. When Jay Rosen talked about people formerly known as the audience, as he famously did in 2006, that concept really resonated with me, in a way that ended up informing some of my early research into participatory journalism.

But I also remember when I decided to go back and do a Ph.D., I asked someone what I should read in preparation, and they recommended Herbert Gans’s book, Deciding What’s News, from 1979. That and Tuchman’s book stand as these two pillars of journalism research from the 20th century that still have such a shaping influence on the way we study the sociology of news today.

I do think there is real value in finding those important books that bring together the research on a given topic, either as one of the first key things written about the topic, or because it summarizes a lot of existing research. As an example, my friend and collaborator, Sue Robinson, has a book coming this year called How Journalists Engage: A Theory of Trust Building, Identities, and Care. It will be a book that tells the story of engagement and journalism, which has been one of the really robust areas of research over the past five to 10 years. And so she’ll both synthesize what has been done, but also bring her own new original research to it. That’s the kind of book that a journalist would benefit from reading at least a couple of chapters. They would get a lot out of that, as opposed to trying to summarize and skim 40 or 50 articles.

Holan: Final question: Why do you call the newsletter RQ1?

Coddington: When writing research papers, RQ1 is the shorthand for the first research question. So when you have multiple research questions you will shorten it to say, RQ1, RQ2, RQ3, and then hypotheses are H1, H2, H3. So it is a bit of academic shorthand that almost any academic in our field would get. And for anybody else, at least it wouldn’t turn them off.

Lewis: I think it’s appropriate we call it RQ1 and not H1, because in the field of journalism research, we tend to ask research questions rather than pose hypotheses. Hypotheses work well for studies of things that are well-established, where things feel stable and you’re looking for incremental forms of change. But the study of journalism tends to involve more exploratory, inductive forms of qualitative analysis. That generally begins with research questions as opposed to hypotheses. And that really speaks to the nature of this work right now, that the future of journalism is very much in flux. It’s very much this open-ended question. Our purpose is to point to the research questions that are being asked and answered, and to gesture to more questions yet to be explored.

Angie Drobnic Holan is editor-in-chief of PolitiFact and a 2023 Nieman Fellow.

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Putting a reporter’s mugshot next to a fact check won’t make readers more likely to believe it https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/06/putting-a-reporters-mugshot-next-to-a-fact-check-wont-make-readers-more-likely-to-believe-it/ https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/06/putting-a-reporters-mugshot-next-to-a-fact-check-wont-make-readers-more-likely-to-believe-it/#respond Thu, 29 Jun 2017 16:47:17 +0000 http://www.niemanlab.org/?p=144441 Since the 2016 presidential election, media groups like PolitiFact and The New York Times have expanded their fact-checking operations. Sites like Google and Facebook have given it more prominence in search results and social media feeds. But it’s like the old saying goes: You can lead a reader to a checked fact, but you can’t make them believe it.

That’s the core of what political science assistant professor Leslie Caughell has been investigating with the American Press Institute’s Accountability Journalism Project. She has been surveying Americans on their trust in the news media, specifically related to fact-checking. The full paper is due in September, but the API released some preliminary findings — including some suggestions for how journalists can make hot button issues more convincing to readers.

Caughell examined two methods that might have improved the credibility of fact checks — including a photo of the reporter to increase trust in the story itself or citing sources and including quotes from people whom readers already trust to support the fact check’s results. It turns out that adding a reporter’s picture doesn’t make a real difference in how much people are able to recall the information in the story — but they are more likely to remember the facts of the story if it cites sources that the reader trusts.

That trust, however, varies for the different kinds of sources she tested — corporations, government agencies, and academic research institutions. People who entered the experiment with more trust in a particular kind of source were also more likely to recall facts if that source was the type cited.

Her research also found interesting data about users’ assumptions about what defines a “journalist” and the “news media.”

  • 83 percent considered those working for print newspapers and broadcast programs on television networks as journalists.
  • 34 percent said pundits or those who write for op-ed pages are journalists.
  • 30 percent considered people who write for blogs/websites not associated with print or major broadcast programs are journalists.
  • 23 percent said people who post on social media platforms (again, not associated with major outlets) are journalists.

When asked to define the “news media,” 66 percent cited news programs on television networks. Other answers were:

  • 34 percent: traditional print sources
  • 10 percent: websites or blogs not run by print sources or networks
  • 10 percent: social media posts
  • 9 percent: comedy programs
  • 8 percent: programs aired on social media channels, such as YouTube
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When certainties fade: The changing state of academic research into the changing world of news https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/06/when-certainties-fade-the-changing-state-of-academic-research-into-the-changing-world-of-news/ https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/06/when-certainties-fade-the-changing-state-of-academic-research-into-the-changing-world-of-news/#comments Mon, 12 Jun 2017 16:00:54 +0000 http://www.niemanlab.org/?p=143485 Innovation everywhere. Innovation in the news business. Innovation in social media. Innovation (and creative destruction!) in presidential political communication. Innovation in the topics and methods of scholarly research. Innovation as a keyword and a buzzword. Innovation as an ideology and a sign of the times.

Things are different, to put it mildly, than they used to be. When we talked over lunch at a 2013 symposium on “Data Crunched Democracy,” organized by Daniel Kreiss and Joseph Turow at the University of Pennsylvania, we could not help but shake our heads at how much had changed since we had started our research into news and journalism. We marveled at how a domain of inquiry that until recently was seen as a somewhat specialized area within the larger field of communication was generating an unprecedented amount of scholarship. All the while, the questions, theories, and methods for studying journalism were also changing, spurred in part by the challenge of the evolving news environment. Yet the frantic pace of knowledge production had somewhat prevented scholars to engage in a collective process of sensemaking about what had been accomplished and what might lie ahead.

Four years later — while much in academia has changed, what has barely been altered is the time it takes to get a book conceived, written, revised, edited, and printed! — we edited Remaking the News, a book that tries to make sense of the past couple of decades of journalism scholarship and imagine new pathways moving forward. We approached some of the most accomplished people we knew who were researching news and asked each of them to write an essay about an aspect of the changes in journalism and the new scholarly opportunities afforded by these transformations. We also asked them reflect on why their arguments mattered to news professionals, scholars, and the public at large. In this article, we share three key lessons we learned as a result of this four-year journey:

  • Alternative modes of telling the story often afford novel arguments while rekindling the passion for the craft.
  • Diversity and conflict are a source of strength and innovation for both newspeople and researchers.
  • Nostalgia, in either journalism or the academy, is not productive; the present moment is ripe for reflecting on the past as a way to imagine new futures.

Expanding the storytelling toolkit

For over a decade, media organizations have been experimenting with alternative modes of presenting information and telling stories. From The New York Times’s exemplary “Snow Fall” to Politico’s recent article on media bubbles, taking advantage of the resources available in the digital environment has become a mantra of the news business. It has pushed journalism in some great directions.

One thing that we learned in the process of putting together Remaking the News is that scholars also ought to find new ways to present information and make a case. In particular, we discovered the renewed potential of the essay format that this edited volume embraces. We do not propose that this become the default genre for scholarly communication. But we found out that it fostered intellectual creativity and joy in ways that we do not normally see in the process of writing the dominant genre, namely the journal article.

These types of articles are to academics what the straight news format is to journalists: effective and easy to write templates that convey the essence of complex arguments to audiences increasingly swamped with information. But like all good formulas, they run the risk of becoming, well, formulaic, and sapping creativity and enjoyment from the craft. They can become, to use an exercise analogy, the treadmill option for runners.

Living in Brooklyn and Evanston, we are both familiar with the pleasures of winter, and know all too well that during the colder months, in order to stay in shape, you have to take the running inside, into the gym and onto the treadmill. Writing a peer-reviewed journal article, in our experience, has increasingly become the treadmill running of scholarly writing. It is necessary, practical, beneficial, generates valuable information exchange, and often invites a form of argumentation that serves the process of analysis well. Not doing it would leave you incapable of getting off the couch once winter has drawn to an end.

But it is often overdone. The corporatization of the academy, like the increased bottom-line concerns in the news business, has led to an ever-expanding pressure to publish larger and larger numbers of articles. New journals pop up from one season to the next like wild mushrooms in the forest, and the existing ones move from publishing four times a year to doing it eight times a year. Concurrently, search and promotion committees expect longer lists of publications from scholars. All of this has turned a whole lot of academic life into what Dean Starkman called, referring to the news business, the hamster wheel: It keeps you in shape but takes the fun out of exercising the mind.

Which is why, in part, in the process of editing Remaking the News, we found that writing an essay has become more like a long run through the woods, particularly one you take in the sun on one of the first days of spring. Without getting too maudlin about it, we discovered that by virtue of its fewer genre constraints and its implicit openness, essay writing clears the head, generates creative new approaches to old problems, and gives authors the freedom to draw on our earlier exercise regimen — that is, the journal articles that have been put through their disciplinary paces — in order to push scholarship in new directions. As editors, it was remarkable to see the level of enthusiasm, commitment, and risk-taking among our authors — something which is quite different from what we experience and hear about the journal publishing process.

Just as journalists are embracing new ways of telling the story, then, we encourage academics to think about new ways of making a case and communicating their ideas. We encourage hiring and promotion committees to adapt their practices accordingly. The digital age has seen an explosion in different communication modalities and platforms. Much of this work goes beyond the essay format, of course, ranging from social media writing to the interactive visualization work increasingly common in the digital humanities. We would like to see more of all of it.

These alternatives should not be seen as subservient to the journal article genre — in the same way that interactive storytelling is not subservient to straight-news, inverted pyramid storytelling. We are not saying that academics ought to dispense with their treadmill workouts…er, with their journal articles. But we are saying that it is important to take alternative modes of communication seriously and value their contributions in their own right. Different forms of academic, and journalistic, writing complement each other in unique and productive ways. There is much intellectual creativity and personal engagement that can arise from expanding the storytelling toolkit.

Embracing diversity

We live in diverse societies and therefore conflict is to a certain extent unavoidable. This applies to both the academy and journalism. Reporters and editors routinely choose between different stories. Even within a single story, they often hear different sides of it; sometimes the versions are complementary, while other times they can be polar opposites.

To cope with this diversity, research on newsmaking conducted since the 1970s has documented a tendency among journalists to privilege certain stories over others, as well as certain sources and accounts within an article. Social scientists are not different: We have our preferred topics, theories, and methods. We sometimes accept alternative approaches as equally productive, but on other occasions think ours is the best and even that the alternatives are plainly wrong.

To counter the shortcomings of a tendency to narrow down diversity that he observed in his landmark studies of news work, Herbert Gans proposed in 1979 the notion of “multiperspectivism.” Gans offered a very concrete set of proposals back then, and he updated them in a thoughtful essay published in 2011. But beyond the specifics of both texts, Gans’ idea is that journalists would do well by incorporating an orientation towards broadening the set of topics and voices represented in the news. By implication, this also meant housing competing viewpoints within the news report in inclusive rather than agonistic manner. In our approach to the volume, we were inspired by the notion of multiperspectivism and tried to include a broad spectrum of intellectual orientations. We also thought that any potential conflicts and disagreements that could arise were a potential source of intellectual innovation.

Two areas of diversity and disagreement in the book are worth highlighting for this article. The first one has to do with the tensions between disciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches to the study of news — this is mirrored, to a certain degree, in the tensions between journalists and technologists in contemporary newsmaking. The second is between knowledge generated primarily with applied goals in mind, or mainly for scholarly purposes.

Regarding the tension between “disciplinary” and “interdisciplinary” approaches, scholars in the first group (to generalize broadly) often frame their intellectual arguments in relationship to other pieces of scholarship that also focus on journalism. They often attempt to generalize about their findings in ways that allow them to build a common theoretical apparatus and advance the state of knowledge about the news. These scholars are building a discipline while making knowledge; thus they have an investment in the institutional vitality of the news media as a source of legitimation of their scholarly enterprise.

The second group of scholars in the book, conversely, seemed more interested in “studies of journalism” rather than in journalism studies. These writers usually framed their journalism research as a case of something else — new media, political communication, cultural studies, and so on. Often, the chapters addressed other literatures as much as they addressed scholarship on the news. They also tended to include arguments for outward disciplinary connections rather than inward disciplinary growth, using journalism as a way of shedding light on cross-cutting social processes and phenomena.

Instead of fostering confrontation or falling into the trap of adjudication, we favored a stance of welcoming these diverse approaches. We tried to make visible their different assumptions and fostered productive conversations among the various perspectives. In the academy as much as in journalism, the goal of multiperspectivism is to turn what David Stark has called “creative friction” into new ways of seeing the world.

A second area of diversity and conflict present in the volume is between scholars who produce action-oriented media research and thinkers who conduct what some philosophers of science call “basic research.” This area cuts across the professional worlds of academics and journalists, since the former type of research is sometimes done either in part to engage professionals or wholly within industry and think tanks. It is also an old area of disagreement among both social scientists and journalists.

In our book, it is addressed primarily in the chapters by Talia Stroud and Matt Hindman. Stroud focuses on the distinction between studies that help the bottom line and those that help the quality of democratic life. She argues that the tension between “democratically-useful and industry-useful research is often overdrawn, and even when it exists, that this conflict can be productive,” thus concludes by offering alternatives that satisfy both research aims. In a related vein, rather than bemoaning journalists’ use of reader metrics or claiming that this use somehow debases or diminishes journalism, Hindman accepts metric deployment as a given and tries to discover an ethical use for them. Both Hindman and Stroud problematize critical and practical approaches to the study of news, therefore showing how diversity becomes a source of conceptual innovation.

Dispensing with nostalgia

Social scientists, like journalists, are in the business of sensemaking: finding out information about important phenomena and accounting for what happens in ways that are truthful and relevant to our publics. Academics, unlike journalists, study these phenomena but also build theories trying to find the logic behind them. The topics we choose and how we explain them tend to be shaped by the times we live in. So during the third quarter of the 20th century, when the industrialized mass media system was at its peak, scholars focused on issues such as the ability of the press to tell citizens which news stories to talk about, and the commingling of mass and interpersonal communication in shaping the effects of media on society. What emerged from that scholarly focus were both knowledge about media, culture, and politics and theoretical notions like agenda setting and the two-step model of influence.

In the social sciences, theories tend to have an inertia of their own by helping frame the process of inquiry long after the historical conditions that led to their development change. During periods of historical discontinuity, and especially at the beginning of them, this leads to a nostalgic reflex that is both scholarly and normative: The new phenomena are made sense with theoretical approaches from the past — they are the only ones we have at our disposal at the time, after all — and their implications are assessed, often negatively, in comparison to what was the norm before. Thus a sizeable portion of the scholarship on online news has applied notions like agenda setting and the two-step model to the current environment and has found that it is much more difficult for the press to set the agenda now than before, and that the ascent of social media to the pinnacle of power in the new media ecology has added layers of complexity to the relatively simple two-stage process of influence. This has been tied to common normative assessments yearning for the glorious Watergate days, when the press could supposedly focus people’s attention on what was important and Facebook and Twitter did not pollute the public sphere with a tsunami of fake news.

The problem with this kind of nostalgic stance is that it obliterates both theoretical imagination and practical possibilities. Overcoming nostalgia does not mean doing away with the conceptual tools and normative ideals of the past. It means not taking them for granted, and instead revisiting them in ways that do justice to the unique characteristics and potentials of the contemporary moment. For instance, how does the fact that most people access digital news from social media platforms and search engines affect the power of agenda setting by news organizations? Does the rise of personal publics on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter affect the influence exerted by co-located interpersonal networks and, if so, shouldn’t we think about a three-step flow, instead of the two-step process outlined by Katz and Lazarsfeld 60 years ago?

Yes, the golden days of the industrialized mass media system played a part in Watergate. But would that system have contributed to the Black Lives Matter movement with the same efficacy that the use of social media platforms by activists and the public at large did? And while it is possible that the contemporary mix of news and social media contributed to a rise in the volume of false information during the 2016 electoral cycle in the United States, this mix has also been credited with contributing to loosen oppressive information regimes as in the case of the Arab spring. We need to assess both sides of the coin concurrently.

Nostalgia provides reassurance and self-gratification, but it is also intellectually and socially stultifying. It is time to move on, make sense of the present by learning from history, not by clinging to it, in order to help shape more productive futures.

When certainties fade

If there is a common thread that cuts across these lessons about the value of diversity, the vitality of expanded storytelling options, and the importance of dispensing with a nostalgic stance is that they all challenge the certainties associated with homogeneous viewpoints, writing genres, explanatory models, and normative ideals. There is nothing inherently wrong with certainty; it can be quite productive, in particular during a period of historical stability.

But, going back to the opening of this article, the contemporary context is marked by rapid and widespread innovation, including in the research about, and practice of, journalism. In the words that Michel Foucault penned for The Order of Things and that anchored the introduction of our volume, this context “restor[es] to our silent and apparently immobile soil its rifts, its instability, its flaws; and it is the same ground that is once more stirring under our feet.” This feeling of great transformations can be unsettling and paralyzing, yet also exhilarating and liberating.

Above all, it reminds us that we are in the driver’s seat, and that perhaps we might not have the luxury of relying a whole lot on the routines and institutions that served us so well during the second half of the twentieth century. A renewed sense of agency might actually be the ultimate beauty of writing about our digital age.

C.W. Anderson is an associate professor at the College of Staten Island (CUNY) and the CUNY Graduate Center. Pablo J. Boczkowski is a professor in the School of Communication at Northwestern University.

Photo by HAT Triathlon used under a Creative Commons license.

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De Watergate a las fake news: los nuevo futuros del periodismo https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/06/de-watergate-a-las-fake-news-los-nuevo-futuros-del-periodismo/ https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/06/de-watergate-a-las-fake-news-los-nuevo-futuros-del-periodismo/#respond Mon, 12 Jun 2017 15:59:56 +0000 http://www.niemanlab.org/?p=143530 La innovación está en todas partes. La innovación en el negocio de noticias. La innovación en las redes sociales. La innovación (¡y destrucción creativa!) en la comunicación política presidencial. La innovación en los temas y métodos de investigación académica. La innovación como palabra clave y de moda. La innovación como ideología y signo de los tiempos.

Las cosas son, por decirlo con delicadeza, diferentes de lo que solían ser. Cuando hablamos durante el almuerzo en un simposio de 2013 titulado “Data Crunched Democracy”, organizado por Daniel Kreiss y Joseph Turow en la Universidad de Pensilvania, no pudimos evitar sorprendernos de cuánto habían cambiado las cosas desde que empezamos nuestras respectivas investigaciones sobre las noticias y el periodismo. Nos maravillamos de cómo un campo de investigación que hasta hace poco era visto como un área algo especializada dentro del campo más amplio de la comunicación estaba generando una cantidad sin precedentes de estudios. Mientras tanto, las preguntas, las teorías y los métodos para estudiar el periodismo también estaban cambiando, impulsados en parte por el desafío de un entorno de noticias cambiante. Sin embargo, el ritmo frenético de la producción de conocimiento había impedido de algún modo a los investigadores participar en un proceso colectivo para darle sentido a lo que se había logrado y lo que podría estar por delante.

Cuatro años más tarde — aunque mucho en la academia ha cambiado, lo que apenas ha sido alterado es el tiempo que lleva concebir, escribir, editar, revisar y producir un libro — MIT Press ha publicado Remaking the News. En este libro intentamos darle sentido a las últimas dos décadas de estudios sobre noticias e imaginar nuevos caminos hacia adelante. Nos acercamos a algunas de las personas más destacadas que conocíamos en el ámbito de la investigación sobre los medios y les pedimos que escribieran un ensayo sobre algún aspecto vinculado con los cambios en el periodismo y las nuevas oportunidades académicas que ofrecen estas transformaciones. También les pedimos que reflexionaran sobre por qué sus argumentos importan para los profesionales de noticias, investigadores y el público general. En este artículo compartimos tres lecciones clave que aprendimos como resultado de este proceso:

  • Los modos alternativos de contar historias suelen introducir argumentos novedosos a la vez que reavivan la pasión por el oficio.
  • La diversidad y el conflicto son una fuente de vitalidad e innovación tanto para los periodistas como para los investigadores.
  • La nostalgia, tanto en el periodismo como en la academia, no es productiva; el presente está maduro para reflexionar sobre el pasado como una vía para imaginar nuevos futuros.

Ampliar el juego de herramientas narrativas

Durante más de una década, las organizaciones de medios han estado experimentando con modos alternativos de presentar la información y contar historias. Desde el ejemplar “Snowfall” del New York Times hasta el reciente artículo de Politico sobre las “burbujas” de los medios de comunicación, aprovechar los recursos disponibles en el entorno digital se ha convertido en un mantra del negocio de noticias. Esto ha empujado al periodismo en algunas direcciones importantes. Una cosa que aprendimos en el proceso de trabajar en Remaking the News es que los investigadores también deben encontrar nuevas maneras de presentar la información y formular sus argumentos. En particular, descubrimos el renovado potencial del formato de ensayo del que este libro se nutre. No proponemos que se convierta en el género estándar para la comunicación académica, pero encontramos que fomenta la creatividad y el disfrute intelectual de formas que difícilmente vemos en el proceso de escribir el género imperante, específicamente, el artículo para una revista científica.

Este tipo de artículo es para los académicos lo que el formato de pirámide invertida es para los periodistas: un modelo eficaz y fácil de escribir que transmite la esencia de argumentos complejos a audiencias cada vez más inundadas en un mar de información. Pero, al igual que todas las buenas fórmulas, corren el riesgo de convertirse en repetitivas y, por lo tanto, de restarle creatividad y disfrute al oficio. Pueden convertirse, para utilizar una analogía del ejercicio, en el equivalente a la cinta rodante para los corredores. Viviendo en Brooklyn y Evanston, ambos estamos familiarizados con los placeres del invierno, y sabemos muy bien que durante los meses más fríos, para mantenerse en forma, uno tiene que trasladar el deporte al espacio interior, dentro del gimnasio y sobre la cinta. El artículo de revista científica, en nuestra experiencia, se ha convertido cada vez más en la cinta rodante de la escritura académica. Es necesario, práctico, beneficioso, genera un valioso intercambio de información, y a menudo invita a una forma de argumentación que beneficia al proceso de análisis. No hacerlo lo dejaría a uno incapaz de levantarse del sofá una vez que el invierno llega a su fin.

Pero a menudo nos excedemos. La corporatización de la academia, al igual que el aumento de las preocupaciones comerciales en el negocio de noticias, ha llevado a una presión cada vez mayor de publicar un número creciente de artículos. Nuevas revistas aparecen de una temporada a otra como las setas silvestres en el bosque, y las existentes pasan de publicarse cuatro veces al año hasta hacerlo ocho veces. A la vez, los comités de búsqueda y promoción en las universidades esperan de los investigadores listas cada vez más largas de publicaciones. Todo esto ha convertido a una gran cantidad de la vida académica en lo que Dean Starkman llamó, refiriéndose al negocio de noticias, la rueda del hámster: te mantiene en forma, pero elimina la diversión de ejercitar la mente.

Es, en parte, por eso que durante el proceso de editar Remaking the News, encontramos que el escribir un ensayo se parece más y más a una larga corrida en el bosque; una que se lleva a cabo en los primeros días soleados de la primavera. Sin caer en el sentimentalismo exagerado al respecto, descubrimos que por virtud de ser un género narrativo con menos limitaciones y una apertura implícita, la escritura de ensayos despeja la mente, genera nuevos enfoques creativos para problemas viejos y les da a los autores la libertad de construir sobre el régimen de ejercicio previo — es decir, los artículos en revistas científicas — con el fin de empujar la conversación intelectual en nuevas direcciones. Como compiladores, fue notable ver el nivel de entusiasmo, compromiso y deseo de experimentar entre nuestros autores. Esto difiere mucho de lo que experimentamos y escuchamos sobre el proceso de publicación en revistas científicas.

Así como los periodistas están acogiendo nuevas estrategias para contar historias, entonces, deberíamos animarnos los investigadores a pensar en nuevas maneras de construir argumentos y comunicar ideas. Invitamos a los comités de contratación y promoción a adaptar sus prácticas en consecuencia. La era digital ha visto una explosión en diferentes modalidades y plataformas de comunicación. Mucho de esta labor se extiende más allá del formato de ensayo, por supuesto, desde la escritura en redes sociales hasta el trabajo de visualización interactiva, cada vez más común en las humanidades digitales. Nos gustaría ver más de todo. Estas alternativas no deben considerarse inferiores al género de artículo en revistas, así como la narración interactiva no está por debajo de la estructura de pirámide invertida. No estamos diciendo que los académicos deben prescindir de sus entrenamientos en la cinta para correr… es decir, con sus artículos de revistas. Pero sí estamos diciendo que es importante tomar en serio los modos alternativos de comunicación y valorar sus contribuciones por sus propios méritos. Las diferentes formas de escritura académica y periodística se complementan de maneras únicas y productivas. Mucha creatividad intelectual y compromiso personal pueden surgir al ampliar el juego de herramientas narrativas.

Abrazar la diversidad

Vivimos en sociedades diversas y por lo tanto el conflicto es, en cierta medida, inevitable. Esto aplica tanto para la academia como para el periodismo. Los reporteros y editores eligen a diario entre diferentes historias. Incluso dentro de una sola historia, a menudo escuchan lados diferentes de la misma; en algunas ocasiones las versiones son complementarias, mientras que otras veces pueden ser polos opuestos. Las investigaciones sobre noticias realizadas desde los años setenta han documentado cómo los periodistas, para enfrentar esa diversidad, tienden a privilegiar ciertas historias sobre otras, y también ciertas fuentes y relatos dentro de un artículo. Los científicos sociales no somos diferentes: tenemos nuestros temas, teorías y métodos predilectos. A veces aceptamos enfoques alternos como válidos, pero en otras ocasiones pensamos que el nuestro es el mejor, e incluso que las alternativas sencillamente están mal.

Para contrarrestar las desventajas de la tendencia de reducir la diversidad, la cual observó en sus estudios históricos sobre el trabajo periodístico, Herbert Gans propuso en 1979 la noción de “multiperspectivismo”. Gans ofreció un conjunto muy concreto de propuestas en ese entonces, y las actualizó en un ensayo publicado en 2011. Pero más allá de las especificidades de ambos textos, la idea de Gans es que los periodistas harían bien si ampliaran el conjunto de temas y voces representados en las noticias. Por implicación, esto también significa albergar puntos de vista competitivos de manera inclusiva en lugar de agonística. En nuestro abordaje de este volumen nos inspiramos en la noción del multiperspectivismo e intentamos incluir un amplio espectro de orientaciones intelectuales. También concluimos que cualquier conflicto o desacuerdo que pudiera surgir era una potencial fuente de innovación intelectual.

Vale la pena destacar para este artículo dos áreas de diversidad y desacuerdo en Remaking the News. La primera tiene que ver con las tensiones entre los enfoques disciplinarios e interdisciplinarios para el estudio de las noticias, el cual refleja, en cierta medida, las tensiones entre periodistas y tecnólogos en la creación de noticias contemporáneas. La segunda es la que surge entre el conocimiento generado con un énfasis en objetivos aplicados, versus el conocimiento con fines primordialmente académicos.

En cuanto a la tensión entre los enfoques disciplinarios e interdisciplinarios, los investigadores del primer grupo tienden a enmarcan sus argumentos intelectuales en relación con otros estudios que también se centran en el periodismo. Suelen tratar de generalizar sobre sus hallazgos de manera que puedan construir un aparato teórico común y avanzar el estado del conocimiento sobre las noticias. Estos investigadores están construyendo una disciplina mientras generan conocimiento. Por lo tanto, tienen una inversión intelectual en la vitalidad institucional de los medios de comunicación como una fuente de legitimación de su emprendimiento académico.

Mientras tanto, el segundo grupo de estudiosos está más interesado en estudios sobre periodismo que en estudios de periodismo. Estos escritores usualmente plantean su investigación periodística como un caso puntual de algo más: de nuevos medios, de comunicación política, de estudios culturales, etc. A menudo, estos capítulos dialogan tanto con otras literaturas como lo hacen con los estudios de periodismo. También tienden a incluir argumentos que abogan por conexiones disciplinarias externas, más que crecimiento disciplinario interno, usando el periodismo para arrojar luz sobre procesos y fenómenos sociales más generales.

En vez de fomentar la confrontación o caer en la trampa de la adjudicación, nosotros optamos por una postura que invita los enfoques disciplinarios e interdisciplinarios. Tratamos de hacer visibles sus diferentes suposiciones y fomentamos conversaciones productivas entre las distintas perspectivas. Tanto en la academia como en el periodismo, la meta del multiperspectivismo es transformar lo que David Stark ha llamado “fricción creativa” en nuevas formas de ver el mundo.

Una segunda área de diversidad y conflicto presente en el volumen surge entre los académicos que producen investigación sobre medios orientada a la acción y los que efectúan lo que algunos filósofos de la ciencia llaman “investigación básica.” Este conflicto atraviesa el mundo profesional de académicos y periodistas, puesto que la investigación aplicada a veces se ejecuta involucrando a profesionales y otras completamente dentro de la industria y los think tanks. También es un área en el que han existido desacuerdos de larga data entre los científicos sociales y los periodistas. En nuestro libro este tema se aborda principalmente en los capítulos de Talia Stroud y Matt Hindman.

Stroud se centra en la distinción entre los estudios que ayudan al bienestar comercial y los que benefician la calidad de la vida democrática. Ella sostiene que la tensión entre las investigaciones “útiles desde el punto de vista democrático y útiles para la industria es a menudo exagerada, e incluso cuando existe, este conflicto puede ser productivo”, y concluye ofreciendo alternativas que satisfagan ambos objetivos de investigación.

En lugar de lamentar que los periodistas están usando métricas de lectores o alegando que este uso de alguna manera corrompe o disminuye el periodismo, Hindman toma la utilización de métricas como un hecho y trata de descubrir un uso ético para las mismas. Tanto Hindman como Stroud problematizan los enfoques críticos y prácticos para el estudio de las noticias, mostrando cómo la diversidad se convierte en una fuente de innovación conceptual.

Descartar la Nostalgia

Los científicos sociales, al igual que los periodistas, estamos en el negocio de encontrarle el sentido a las cosas: obtener información sobre fenómenos importantes y explicar lo que sucede de manera veraz y relevante para nuestros públicos. Los académicos, a diferencia de los periodistas, estudiamos estos fenómenos, pero también construimos teorías tratando de encontrar la lógica que tienen detrás. Los temas que elegimos y cómo los explicamos tienden a ser moldeados por los tiempos en que vivimos. Así, durante el tercer cuarto del siglo veinte, cuando el sistema de medios de comunicación industrializados estaba en su apogeo, los académicos se enfocaron en asuntos como la capacidad de la prensa de decirles a los ciudadanos sobre cuáles noticias hablar, y cómo la interrelación entre comunicación de masas e interpersonal moldeaba los efectos de los medios sobre la sociedad. Lo que surgió de ese enfoque académico fue tanto el conocimiento sobre los medios de comunicación, la cultura y la política, como ideas teóricas fundamentales, entre ellas el establecimiento de la agenda y el modelo de influencia de dos pasos.

En las ciencias sociales, las teorías tienden a generar una inercia propia al ayudar a enmarcar el proceso de investigación mucho después del cambio de condiciones históricas que llevaron a sus desarrollos. Durante los períodos de discontinuidad histórica, y especialmente al principio de ellos, esto conduce a un reflejo nostálgico que es tanto académico como normativo: los nuevos fenómenos tienen sentido con enfoques teóricos del pasado — son los únicos que tenemos a nuestra disposición, después de todo — y sus implicaciones son evaluadas, a menudo negativamente, en comparación con lo que era la norma en un período anterior. Por lo tanto, una considerable porción de las investigaciones sobre noticias digitales ha utilizado nociones como el establecimiento de la agenda y el modelo de dos pasos para el entorno actual, y ha descubierto que es mucho más difícil para la prensa establecer la agenda ahora que antes y que el ascenso de las redes sociales al pináculo del poder en la ecología de los nuevos medios le ha añadido capas de complejidad al relativamente sencillo modelo de influencia de dos pasos. Esto se suma a las comunes evaluaciones normativas que anhelan los gloriosos días de Watergate cuando la prensa podía supuestamente enfocar la atención de la gente en lo que era importante, y Facebook y Twitter no contaminaban la esfera pública con un tsunami de noticias falsas.

El problema con este tipo de postura nostálgica es que dificulta tanto la imaginación teórica como las posibilidades prácticas. Superar la nostalgia no significa acabar con las herramientas conceptuales y los ideales normativos del pasado. Significa no darlos por sentado, y en cambio, reverlos de manera que hagan justicia a las características únicas y potenciales del presente. Por ejemplo, ¿cómo influye el hecho de que la mayoría de las personas accedan a las noticias digitales a través de las plataformas de medios sociales y de los motores de búsqueda sobre el poder de fijación de la agenda por parte de las organizaciones de noticias? ¿El aumento de los públicos personales en Facebook, Instagram y Twitter afecta la influencia ejercida por las redes interpersonales y, en caso afirmativo, no debemos pensar en un proceso de tres pasos, en lugar del proceso de dos pasos descrito por Katz y Lazarsfeld hace sesenta años?

Sí, la edad de oro del sistema de medios de comunicación industrializados desempeñaron un papel en Watergate. Pero, ¿habría contribuido ese sistema al movimiento Black Lives Matter con la misma eficacia que el uso de las plataformas de medios sociales por parte de los activistas y del público en general? Y aunque es posible que la combinación de medios noticiosos y redes sociales contribuyeron al aumento del volumen de información falsa durante el ciclo electoral de 2016 en los Estados Unidos, a esta combinación también se le atribuye contribuir al debilitamiento de los regímenes de información opresivos como en el caso de la primavera árabe. Tenemos que evaluar ambos lados de la moneda al mismo tiempo.

La nostalgia proporciona tranquilidad y auto-gratificación, pero también es intelectual y socialmente inútil. Es hora de seguir adelante, de dar sentido al presente aprendiendo de la historia, no aferrándonos a ella, para ayudar a desarrollar futuros más productivos.

Cuando las certezas se desvanecen

Si hay un hilo común que atraviesa estas lecciones sobre el valor de la diversidad, la vitalidad de expandir las opciones narrativas y la importancia de prescindir de las posturas nostálgicas, es que desafían las certezas asociadas con los puntos de vista, géneros escritos, modelos explicativos, e ideales normativos homogéneos. No hay nada intrínsecamente malo con la certeza; puede ser bastante productiva, en particular durante un período histórico estable. Pero, volviendo al comienzo de este artículo, el contexto contemporáneo está marcado por la innovación rápida y generalizada, incluso en la investigación sobre, y la práctica de, el periodismo. En las palabras que Michel Foucault escribió para Las Palabras y las Cosas, y que anclaron la introducción de nuestro volumen, este contexto “restaura a nuestro silencioso y aparentemente inmóvil suelo sus fisuras, su inestabilidad, sus defectos; y es la misma tierra que está una vez más revolviéndose bajo nuestros pies”. Esta sensación de grandes transformaciones puede ser inquietante y paralizante, pero también estimulante y liberador. Ante todo, nos recuerda que estamos en el asiento del conductor y que tal vez no tengamos el lujo de depender mucho de las rutinas e instituciones que nos sirvieron tan bien durante la segunda mitad del siglo veinte. Un renovado sentido de agencia podría ser realmente la belleza última de la escritura acerca de nuestra era digital.

C.W. Anderson is an associate professor at the College of Staten Island (CUNY) and the CUNY Graduate Center. Pablo J. Boczkowski is a professor in the School of Communication at Northwestern University.

Translation by Revista Anfibia / Universidad Nacional de San Martín.

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A call for better journalism research, with more consideration for technology and audiences https://www.niemanlab.org/2016/02/a-call-for-better-journalism-research-with-more-consideration-for-technology-and-audiences/ https://www.niemanlab.org/2016/02/a-call-for-better-journalism-research-with-more-consideration-for-technology-and-audiences/#respond Mon, 22 Feb 2016 14:30:05 +0000 http://www.niemanlab.org/?p=121353 This paper — “Actors, actants, audiences, and activities in cross-media news work: A matrix and a research agenda” — is now over a year old, but it’s been released under open access, so it’s worth a look — especially if you don’t have enough Bruno Latour in your life.

Written by friend-of-Nieman-Lab Seth Lewis and Oscar Westlund, it argues that academics who study journalism should do more to include the role of technology, audiences, and other factors in how they study news production and news organizations. Rather than a simplified view that sees journalism institutions as mostly self-contained engines of production, they call for a more integrated, systems-based approach:

The scholarly study of contemporary journalism, and cross-media news work specifically, is a complicated endeavor. The roles, boundaries, and processes of news work become increasingly hard to detect apart from other components in the same system. Traditional theories and concepts for unpacking journalism can take scholars only so far; what is still needed is a more comprehensive framework through which to account for the full array of actors, actants, audiences, and activities in crossmedia news work.

As Charlie Beckett put it:

You can find the abstract here, but non-academics might find this from the paper’s conclusion more enlightening:

By adding a sociotechnical element to the sociocultural perspective of mainline research in journalism studies, this approach may help reveal new insights into the relationships among human actors inside the organization, human actors and audiences beyond it, and the nonhuman actants that cross-mediate their interplay. This approach better acknowledges how journalism is becoming interconnected with technological tools, processes, and ways of thinking.

In the paper, Lewis and Westlund consider actors to be the humans involved in the creation of journalism (journalists, yes, but also product managers, coders, marketers, data analysts, and more); actants as the technological forces and players involved (a CMS, iPhones, email newsletters, Facebook, APIs, search engines); audiences as, well, audiences (whether viewed as passive recipients, commodities for advertisers, or co-creators of content); and activities as “the patterns of action through which an organization’s institutional logic is made manifest through media.”

(If you hunger for more intersection of journalism research and actor-network theory, check out this 2013 paper from C.W. Anderson and Daniel Kreiss, summarized here.)

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